Ladies- Celebrate yogurt and probiotics!

Many of us enjoy a cup of fruit yogurt with breakfast; it's packed with calcium, protein, and new studies suggest, helpful probiotics. There's a whole market of probiotics out there claiming to help in a number of ways; from the ability to sooth crying babies to nipping the common cold or flu out of your system. However, many researchers are sceptical of these probiotics due to the lack of research behind the confident marketing. Yogurt, on the other hand, has demonstrated it's probiotic power in a study investigating weight and yogurt.
The researchers observed 125 obese men and women 24 weeks. During the first 12 weeks, the participants followed a strict, weight-loss diet. In the following 12 weeks, participants no longer had a calorie restricted diet, but did follow a personalised plan. Throughout this study, half of the participants received two pills each day of a probiotic called Lactobacillus rhamnosus; that's the scientific name for a probiotic found in most yogurt. The pills contained approximately the same amount of this probiotic as found in a single serving of yogurt. The other half of the participants received placebo pills (Sanchez, et al, 2014).
After the first 12 weeks of the study, women receiving the probiotic lost an average of 9.7lbs in comparison to the placebo group of women loosing an average of 5.7lbs. Surprisingly, during the second half of the study, women receiving the placebo pills maintained their weight loss while the women receiving the probiotic continued their weight loss- with an average of an additional 11.5lbs lost. At the completion of the 24 week study, women receiving the probiotic lost nearly twice as much weight on average than the women receiving placebo!
But, wait a second; what about the men in the study? Well, it turns out the probiotic didn't make a substantial different in their weight loss. In fact, men receiving the probiotic didn't experience any major changes in their gut microbe community. The women receiving the probiotic, on the other hand, experienced substantial changes in their gut flora community. Lachnospiraceae, a family of bacteria related to obesity and inflammation, was greatly reduced in women who received the probiotic (Sanchez, et al, 2014). .
Nevertheless, there are still many unanswered questions. Researchers still aren't sure why exactly the microbe community responded differently between sexes (Sanchez, et al, 2014).  . Moreover, probiotics don't stay in the human gut for very long after being digested; so how could these probiotics change the gut bacteria community so drastically in the women participants? Only more research will unravel these mysteries- but until then- ladies, enjoy your yogurt!


Reference:

Sanchez, M., Doré, J., Rezzonico, E., Lepage, M., Emady-Azar, S., Drapeau, V., et al. (2014). Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus CGMCC1.3724 supplementation on weight loss and maintenance in obese men and women. British Journal of Nutrition, 111(08), 1507-1519.

Get Sick For Good Microbes!

Previously I discussed the relation of the human microbiome to malnutrition. Furthermore, in the previously discussed study, the twin that developed kwashiorkor had an underdeveloped microbiome for their age (3 years). Microbiomes, like many parts of our body, continue to grow and develop as we age. So, how does this developmental process of the microbiome? Well, although babies are born with personal assortment of microbes recieved from their mom, it takes a couple of years for the micrbiome to fully form. A recent study suggests that the immune system of babies are actively suppressed in order to further develop this microbiome (Elahi, et al, 2013). Previously, the lack of immune defense in infants has believed to have been related to immature immune cells. Nevertheless, this particular study found another possible explanation. Researchers discovered that blood cells found in infant umbilical cords (called CD71 cells) actually act as an immunosuppressive. Researchers hypothesized that perhaps the purpose of CD71 cells is to combat the natural inflammation that would occur upon abrupt colonization of bacteria. Furthermore, by suppressing the immune system, babies could catch good microbes (along with the cold-inducing microbes) (Elahi, et al, 2013). However, this study did not investigate the amount of time babies have a suppressed immune system; but it's speculated that the immune system would strike a balance a couple of years after birth.  

Who knew being sick had its benefits?

Reference:

Elahi, S., Shaaban, A. F., Kinder, J. M., Ertelt, J. M., Way, S. S., Kalfa, T. A., et al. (2013). Immunosuppressive CD71+ erythroid cells compromise neonatal host defence against infection. Nature, 504(7478), 158-162. Retrieved May 16, 2014, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12675

Malnutrition and Microbes

I've previously discussed how gut bacteria can effect the metabolism  as well as the immune system; but could gut bacteria be related to malnutrition? Kwashiorkor is a form of deadly malnutrition that occurs when there is a lack of protein in the diet. However, the mystery is that children who suffer from kwashiorkor can can still get this disease despite having the exact same diet as children who remain unaffected.
A study investigating this mystery researched 300 pairs of twins (both monozogtic and dizygotic) from Malawi, a country in southern Africa where kwashiorkor is fairly common. The researchers continued to study the 300 pairs of twins through the first three years of life. It was observed that although none of the twins were malnourished to begin with, often times one twin out of the pair would develop kwashiorkor and the other would remain healthy. Researchers studied the feces of the infected children before and after a therapeutic food intervention in order to see what sort of microbes the children had in their gut. It was discovered that children who suffered from kwashiorkor had abnormal communities of microbes which only improved temporarily with treatment (Smith, et al, 2013).
Researchers then transplanted gut bacteria from three pairs of twins into special mice who completely lacked a microbe community due to being raised in a sterile environment. After receiving a diet similar to that of what children have in Malawi, mice who received the microbes from the ill children started loosing weight. This suggests that perhaps gut bacteria play an important role in malnutrition, and that malnutrition could potentially be treated with strains of probiotics in the future. Nevertheless, questions still remain about how these children are being cared for at home and why generally one out of each pair become malnourished (Smith, et al, 2013).

Reference
Smith, M. I., Knight, R., Concannon, P., Rich, S. S., Kau, A. L., Cheng, J., et al. (2013). Gut Microbiomes of Malawian Twin Pairs Discordant for Kwashiorkor. Science, 339(6119), 548-554.

Brain-Gut Communication and Metabolic Power

Today I'm going to discuss a study that challenges what scientists (and consumers) believe about the human metabolism. This study doesn't directly discuss effects of gut bacteria, but instead hormones secreted in the gut (which are regulated by gut bacteria). Nevertheless, I found this study extremely interesting and believe it highlights an important concept; the power of the mind and its communication with the gut.
It's widely accepted that the nutritional facts of our food item of choice, whether it be a slice of pizza or a bowl of salad, will effect our bodies in  predictable ways as labeled on the side of the box or bag. Metabolic science asserts that the degree in which you metabolite food is directly related to the amount of calories being consumed. Grhelin (regulated by Helicobacter pylori) is a hormone secreted in the gut that tells your brain you are hungry and slows your metabolism. If you chose to eat a low-calorie meal (such as a  salad), grhelin levels only drop a little and as a result, the metabolism only increases marginally. On the other hand, if you chose to indulge in a high- calorie meal (like a whole box of meat-lover's pizza), grhelin levels drop more and metabolic activity is increased significantly. 

A study investigating the power of food labels over human physiology discovered that metabolism may be influenced by the brain. Could food labels act as placebo pills and alter the rate of metabolism in the human body? Could reading the icecream's nutrition facts actually effect your waistline? 

In this particular study, 2 groups of people were given  the same milkshake which contained about 300 calories. The catch? Each group received differently labeled milkshakes. One group received a milkshake that was labeled "Low-Calorie, Sensishake, 0% Fat, No Added Sugar, Only 140 Calories". The second group received the same milkshake, only labeled as "Indulgence, 620 Calories". It was discovered that grhelin levels dropped about three times more when the participant believed he/she was indulging in a high-calorie shake in comparison to the "Sensishake" group (Crum et al, 2011). This means that despite both groups drinking the exact same milkshake, one group had a different metabolic response. 

This is an astounding study, as it suggests that our beliefs about our food matter in the metabolism of it.

Reference: 

Crum, A. J., Corbin, W. R., Brownell, K. D., & Salovey, P. (2011). Mind over milkshakes: Mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response.. Health Psychology, 30(4), 424-429.

An Inflamed Brain is an Unhappy Brain

Last week I discussed the effects gut bacteria have on the central nervous system and as well as their influence on behaviors observed in mice. These findings suggest that perhaps gut flora manipulation would prove to be an effective treatment of psychological disorders. To elaborate on this idea, I found a study that measured psychological changes under the treatment of probiotics. This study investigated the effects of probiotics on depression, hostility, and anxiety-yielding promising results for potential future treatment methods. A probiotic formulation of Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175 was given to a general population. Using the Hopkins symptoms checklist-90, the researchers found that people who received the probiotics significantly improved over a 30 day period with a decrease in anxiety and depression,  as well as sub-areas such as obsessive compulsion and paranoid-ideation (Messaoudi  et al., 2011). One possible explanation for these findings is that probiotics reduce brain inflammation. The probiotics used in this research decrease the amount of inflammatory-inducing cytokines (proteins that signal other cells) found in the gut (Messaoudi  et al., 2011). It's speculated that the signals from the cytokines travel via the vagus nerve to the brain (although there are other hypothesis about how these signals travel as well). Brain inflammation has been linked to depression and anxiety; thus priobiotics' ability to reduce inflammation signaling may be linked to the study's findings. However, researchers concluded that not only can probiotics assist in behavioral abnormalities, but in general well being. Moreover, it is believed that chronic stress could disrupt the delicate balance of gut bacteria and thus potentially lead to diseases. However, the researchers speculate that taking probiotics could keep the gut in good health and prevent such unbalance in the future if/when stress arises (Messaoudi  et al., 2011).


Reference:
Messaoudi, M., Violle, N., Bisson, J., Desor, D., Javelot, H., & Rougeot, C. (2011). Beneficial psychological effects of a probiotic formulation (Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175) in healthy human volunteers. Gut Microbes, 2(4), 256-261.

Gut Flora and the Brain

This week I'll begin discussing how microbiota of the gut can effect your brain! Believe it or not, the bacteria you host in your gut may play an important role in brain chemistry and behavior.

One study I found particularly interesting investigated whether or not anxiety could be linked to gut flora. Researchers took 'fearless' mice and 'anxious' mice and swapped their gut bacteria; so the fearless mouse now had the anxious mouse's microbiota (and vice versa). By altering the microbes of the gut, the anxious mice became bold while the fearless mice became timid. Additionally, the researches investigated the effects of diet, probiotics, and antibiotics on a group of aggressive mice. Due to various alterations of microbes, the aggressive mice appeared to become more docile (Collins, et al., 2013).
You might be asking yourself, 'how could this be possible?!' Well, by measuring the brain chemistry of mice with altered gut microbiota, researchers discovered chemical changes in areas of the brain dealing with emotion/mood as well as an increase in a chemical known as brain-derived neurtrophic factor. Moreover, brain-derived neurtrophic was found to be increased in the hippocampus region of the brain, and is believed to influence both learning and memory (Bercik, et al., 2011). 

Because this is a relatively new area of study, there are still many unknowns. However, researchers are hopeful that eventually alteration of gut flora could become an effective treatment for various disorders of the central nervous  system, including  psychiatric disorders (Collins, et al., 2013).



I found this short video really informative (and fun). It explains gut flora across the human body and discusses why gut microbiota are so important. Although it does not discuss the effects of microbiota on the brain, I still thought it might help some of you grasp the idea of the human microbiome. Enjoy!

(Gudenkauf, 2013). 

References:

 Bercik, P., Verdu, E. F., Denou, E., Collins, S. M., Mccoy, K. D., Macri, J., et al. (2011). The Intestinal Microbiota Affect Central Levels of Brain-Derived Neurotropic Factor and Behavior in Mice.Gastroenterology, 141(2), 599-609.e3.

Collins, S. M., Kassam, Z., & Bercik, P. (2013). The adoptive transfer of behavioral phenotype via the intestinal microbiota: experimental evidence and clinical implications. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 16(3), 240-245.

Gudenkauf, A. (Producer). (2013). The Invisible Universe of the Human Microbiome. United States: NPR.

Gut flora- Suspects of interest in the cause and treatment of type 1 and 2 diabetes

I previously discussed how an unhealthy gut can cause tissue inflammation and ultimately lead to obesity. Nevertheless, gut microbiota have further reaching effects than just weight gain. According to recent studies, the biological makeup of your gut could play a significant role in the onset of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. 
The cause of type  1 and 2 diabetes is not explicitly known. Type 1 diabetes is not preventable and often runs in families, but isn't related to lifestyle choices (such as diet and exercise). Type 2 diabetes is preventable and closely related to genetics, high blood pressure, and obesity. However, research suggests that another factor in diabetes could be related to the health and biological makeup of your gastrointestinal tract. 

In the development of type 1 diabetes, there are three crucial factors relating to gut health that interact closely with one another. The microbiota found in the gut (specifically those that trigger inflammation)  play an important role in the formation of autoimmune diabetes. Moreover, it is believed that the interaction of gut bacteria and the mucosal immune system in postnatal development may have long-term effects and implication for the formation of type 1 diabetes later in life (Vaarala, et al. 2008). Another factor is the degree of permeability of the intestinal wall. Those suffering from type 1 diabetes have a more permeable gut than those without the disease. Low levels of a special tight junction protein known as "claudin" cause an increased permeability in intestines of individuals with type 1 diabetes. This extreme permeability not only leads to increase exposure to sugar, but to other dietary antigens that trigger an immune response. Furthermore, an altered mucosal immune system could be a significant factor in failure for the body to form tolerance which consequently lead to autoimmune responses (Vaarala, et al. 2008).


A study investigating the relationship between gut flora and the development of type 2 diabetes discovered that gut flora may play a role in increasing the permeability of the intestinal walls. Mice fed a high fat diet which induced type 2 diabetes showed an increase in adherence of bacteria to the membrane of the intestines. Ultimately, these bacteria are able to move through the membrane and into the adipose tissue (stored fat) as well as the blood (Amar, et al. 2011).  However, with a probiotic treatment (Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis 420), membrane adherence diminished along with the translocation of bacteria to fat cells and blood. Utilizing such probiotics may prove helpful in controlling diet induced diabetes, as inflammation was reversed in this particular study (Amar, et al. 2011).


References:

Amar, J., Chabo, C., Waget, A., Klopp, P., Vachoux, C., Bermúdez-Humarán, L. G., Smirnova, N., Bergé, M., Sulpice, T., Lahtinen, S., Ouwehand, A., Langella, P., Rautonen, N., Sansonetti, P. J. and Burcelin, R. (2011), Intestinal mucosal adherence and translocation of commensal bacteria at the early onset of type 2 diabetes: molecular mechanisms and probiotic treatment. EMBO Mol Med, 3: 559–572. doi: 10.1002/emmm.201100159

Vaarala, O., Atkinson, M. A., & Neu, J. (2008). The "Perfect Storm" for Type 1 Diabetes: The Complex Interplay Between Intestinal Microbiota, Gut Permeability, and Mucosal Immunity.Diabetes, 57(10), 2555-2562.

Diet, exercise, and... helpful microbiotas?

In my previous post I briefly discussed the many different ways in which gut flora contribute to our health and wellbeing. Today I will be discussing how gut flora relate to a major health risk that effects countless individuals across a wide array of demographics. With easy access to cheap and fattening foods, little time to exercise, and in some cases, unfavourable genetics; many industrialized and developing countries suffer from high obesity rates. However, despite common belief, obesity is not simply related to diet and lifestyle choices. Environmental factors, genetics, and systemic and adipose tissue inflammation also contribute to weight gain (Kotzampassi, et al. 2014).

The 100 trillion cells of microbiota found in the human gut play an important role in energy harvest and body weight. This concoction of bacteria is extremely diverse amongst humans; although, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes (Actinobacteria) are dominant types. In fact, studies suggest that a gut composition including more Firmicutes and less Bacteroidetes (and overall less microbiota diversity) is linked to slower metabolic pathways and increased fat storage (Kotzampassi, et al. 2014). Furthermore, Bifidobacterium spp. of the phylum Actinobacteria, may have anti-inflammatory effects leading to a leaner host.  Nevertheless, the bacteria falling under the phylum Firmicutes, Staphylococcus aureus, may lead to inflammatory effects, increasing the risk of obesity. In summary, such findings suggest that manipulation of gut bacteria could be a fundamental practice in preventing the onset of obesity (Kotzampassi, et al. 2014).

Reference:

Katerina Kotzampassi, Evangelos J. Giamarellos-Bourboulis, and George Stavrou, “Obesity as a Consequence of Gut Bacteria and Diet Interactions,” ISRN Obesity, vol. 2014, Article ID 651895, 8 pages, 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/651895

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"Good" Bacteria or "Bad" Bacteria?

        In my previous blog, I outlined the systems of the body in which gut flora play an essential role in development and function. Today, I begin to look at how gut flora influence the developmental function of the immune system; specifically the mucosal immune system.
      The mucosal immune system is the portion of the immune system that protects mucous membranes throughout an organism's body. The membrane of the gut has the largest mucosal surface area in the body, which is continually exposed to microbes found in food as well as naturally occurring gut flora (Hanson, 1998). The mucosal immune system must be very precise when deciding whether or not a microorganism is 'good' or 'bad' for the body; there are so many helpful gut bacteria in our intestines as well as potentially harmful  invaders!
     Small proteins released by cells in the gut, called Cytokines, facilitate interactions between antibodies and T cells (Science Dictionary). Some Cytokines boost the response of the immune system, while others cause immunological tolerance, or no immune response (Hanson, 1998). Our immune system develops tolerance to the gut flora in our intestines; however, when the mucosal immune system fails to distinguish the difference between harmful and helpful (breaks tolerance to gut flora), it can lead to autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (Hanson, 1998). Nevertheless, the manipulation of micro flora may lead to promising therapeutic treatments (O'Hara & Shanahan, 2006).


Citations:

Brian, P. (n.d.). Science Dictionary - Glossary of Terms & Scientific Definitions. Science Dictionary. Retrieved March 13, 2014, from http://sciencedictionary.org/

Hanson, L.A. (1998). Immune effects of the normal gut flora. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde, 146(S1), S2-S6.

O'Hara, A. M., & Shanahan, F. (2006). The Gut Flora As A Forgotten Organ. EMBO Reports, 7(7), 688-693.

Have a gut feeling? Microorganisms may have more influence than you think...

     I decided to abandon my previous endeavour and instead chose to write about a new topic that both interests me and is more related to my field of study; psychology. From the motherhood of cows to the microbiology of the human gut; I will now be exploring how evolutionary biology plays a role in a much different realm of functioning and survival.

      Many of us know that the human body serves as a great host for a variety of microorganisms; some good and some less desirable. Generally these microorganisms that inhabit our bodies are only brought to our attention with the onset of a common cold (viral infection) or perhaps even strep throat (bacterial infection). New research suggests that microorganisms, specifically those living in our gut, deserve more consideration. In fact, the microorganisms brewing in your gut may have more influence in your body than you think.

     Recent research has revealed that microorganisms inhabiting our gut may play a vital role in the regulation of a variety of psychological processes such as mood, pain, cognition, and may even be related to obesity. This opens the door for new therapeutic possibilities from those suffering from stress-related central nervous system disorders, an arena where the need for new medical innovations is high (RD et al. 2014). One might wonder how gut flora play a role in the central nervous system; how could organisms in the intestines effect our brain and spinal cord? Simply put, microbiota play a major role in the maturation of crucial systems that then, in turn, effect the central nervous system. More specifically, microorganisms of the intestine impact the development of the immune and endocrine system, which ultimately effect the signalling and programming of the central nervous system (RD et al. 2014). But wait, there’s more! Other studies have even suggested a relationship exists between gut flora and the rate of aging (Heintz et al. 2014).

      Let’s recap; gut microbiota can influence the regulation of mood, pain, cognitive processes, weight gain, and even the rate of aging. These gut flora certainly do play an important role in the human body! I will further elaborate on these concepts in later blogs as I continue my journey in exploring the power of microorganisms.

References:

Heintz, C. & Mair, W. 2014. You are what you host: microbiome modulation of the aging process. Cell 156: 408-411.

Moloney, R. D., Desbonnet, L., Clarke, G., Dinan, T. G. & Cryan, J. F. 2014. The microbiome: stress, health and disease. Mammalian Genome 25: 49-74.

Does Mom have a favourite?

        Growing up with siblings can be a challenge for many reasons; competing for resources (in human terms, often food and toys), mother's attention, and perhaps the turmoil of having that pesky younger brother is a challenge in itself. Consequently, many of us growing up with a sibling have had the novel idea that perhaps we, obviously the superior child, were Mom or Dad's favourite. Recently, scientific studies of various class Mammalia animals have lead researchers to believe that some mothers of the animal kingdom do in fact 'have a favourite'. More specifically, studies have indicated that some mothers variate  their investment in offspring (Hinde, 2014).
      How might an animal, like a  cow, give advantage to one offspring over another? Well, it turns out cows have different synthesis capacities for milk based on their offspring's sex, and mother cows tend to favour their female offspring (Hinde, 2014). Moreover, if you're a cow, it pays off to have an older sister. Cows that rear a female offspring first not only produce significantly more milk for that offspring, but the following offspring (Hinde, 2014).
      However, not all mothers favour daughters. In fact, Pronghorns (Antilocapra Americana) tend to favour their male offspring; yet size variation was still present in same-sex litters (Drik, 2013). Why might this be? Variation between offspring in a given litter increased reproductive  success, specifically in a short time period after birth (4-6 days). In fact, litters that had size variation suffered from less sequential mortalities, where a predator would kill one offspring and then come back for seconds (Dirk, 2013).
     Perhaps some of these variations seem downright unfair, but ultimately, it's important to look through an objective lens at these 'favouritisms'.  These bias investments we find in nature serve to promote the overall evolutionary fitness of the species and thus are essential practices of future generations.

If you'd like more information, please take a look at these articles below:

Hinde, K., Carpenter A. J., Clay, J. S. & Bradford, B. J. 2014. Holseins favour heifers, not bulls: biased milk production programmed during pregnancy as a function of fetal sex. PLoS One 9: e86169.

Van Vuren, D. H., Bray, M. P. & Heltzel, J. M. 2013. Differential investment in twin offspring by female pronghorns (Antilocapra americana). Journal of Mammalogy 94: 155-161.